The Introduction To The Kashmir Conflict History Essay

The Introduction To The Kashmir Conflict History Essay Demarcating boundaries to create nations has been an onerous exercise that has always been replete with controversies. Conflicts have been prevailing over it across the globe. This conflict has extended towards sea bodies as countries compete to control oil wells and other resources. The conflicts concerning North Korea and South Korea, the US and Mexico and Japan and China are some of the examples that have drawn international attention. The paper will however focus on issues related to the stalemate over Kashmir between India and Pakistan. Before 1947 India and Pakistan were a part of a Union that was under the control of the British Raj. While leaving, the colonial powers separated the region on the basis of religion giving rise to two nations: India and Pakistan. The transition was mired with incidents that were fraught with bloodshed and consequently the two nations developed an animosity towards each other. Another reason for conflict was over territorial command over Kashmir; an Indian state that lay along the borders of India and Pakistan. In a bid to control the region the two countries have been involved in numerous wars: the war in 1948 and 1965 and the Kargil war of 1999. India opines that Pakistan along with its agencies like the Inter-Services Intelligence or the ISI finances terrorism in the region to create instability while Pakistan claims that they rightfully own Kashmir. The region also has a third group known as separatists who want a separate identity without being a part of either India or Pakistan. The people of Kashmir have been traumatized by the level of insurgency in the region along with the atrocities committed by the Indian army under the Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA). At one time people had an inclination towards a particular nation but the atrocities perpetrated by these nations have held public opinion against these countries. Some have accepted the fact that they are helpless while the reactive ones resort to activities like mass protest and large scale stone slinging in order to claim their basic rights. The literature serves to provide a background to the conflict that includes the three major wars fought between them. It will first cover the reasons that led to the three wars (the 1948-1949 war, the 1965 war and the Kargil war) and the perspectives of both the countries will be discussed in relation to these confrontations. Elaborating on historical and contemporary issues, a comprehensive outlook of India and Pakistan on the Kashmir issue will be discussed and the disparities will be extrapolated. Finally the paper will discuss the possible solutions to the Kashmir conflict. The solutions will be intensive and would encompass issues such as water sharing, providing autonomy to the people of Kashmir, nurturing trade and commerce and demarcating the boundaries of Kashmir based on communal considerations. The Battle for Kashmir a. Immediate post-independence 1948-1949 period As soon as the states of India and Pakistan were formed in 1947, the controversy over Kashmir arose. The two nations have been involved in four wars since the British left the subcontinent and the 1947-1948 was the first among them in which the rightful command over Kashmir was the contentious issue.  [1]  When the two countries were first formed, Kashmir was ruled by a Hindu king by the name of Maharaja Hari Singh. He was neutral to India and Pakistan and chose to remain independent. On October 22, 1947 a large number of armed tribesmen  [2]  , made inroads into Kashmir, plundered the villages and later set fire to these villages. It was at this moment that the king sought the assistance of India and in return decided to make Kashmir a part of the Indian Union. This gave rise to further conflict in the region. In 1947, India and Pakistan went to war over Kashmir. Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appealed to ask the United Nations to intervene and a UN cease-fire was ar ranged for December 31, 1948.  [3]  A ceasefire was established through a Line of Control and Kashmir was acknowledged as a disputed territory (Kashmir is still considered to be a disputed territory against the popular belief in India that the region is a part of it). What needs to be acknowledged is that the war over Kashmir just after Independence had numerous dimensions to it. The Indian contingent claims that the Maharaja of Kashmir was harassed by the constant pillaging of Kashmiri villages by the tribesmen of Pakistan. To protect the interests of the Kashmiri people the Maharaja signed instrument of Accession to India.  [4]  It was further considered that the terrorist forces were under the patronage of Pakistan and was aimed at destabilizing the region. India further claims that it managed to garner the support from the Kashmiris and under plebiscite rule it became a part of the nation. Pakistan on the other hand held an opinion that was totally different. Pakistan never believed in the Accession agreement signed by India and continued to occupy a third portion of Kashmir.  [5]  The varied opinion was the main reason that led to the war and it was only after the interruption of the UN that both sides acknowledged the existence of a ceasefire. India continued to occupy most parts of Kashmir while the international community along with Pakistan refuted such a territorial occupation. Pakistan managed to control a part of the territory and at the same time refuted Indias claim. This was the scenario that prevailed in Kashmir after the war. The endeavors of the UN and the British prevented both the nations from breaking out into a war. Kashmir however was not given the privileges of a democracy by the India Union. India laid down the condition that unless Pakistani troops vacated the remaining portion entirely, democratic rights would be curbed in the region. Through the 1950s  [6]  , there was a tussle between the State Assembly and the power at the Centre in India for a more autonomous government. The Indian government was however very adamant in tackling the situation and maintained a heavy military presence in the region. It was in this period that the people of Kashmir were subjected to strict military surveillance be cause the Indian politicians especially Nehru was of the opinion that if the people were given the liberty, it would promote Pakistan-sponsored terrorism in the region. b. 1965 War The year 1965 saw a desperate attempt by the Pakistani forces to seize Kashmir from the clasp of India. Between 1956 and 1962  [7]  , Pakistan managed to procure a heavy consignment of military equipment and this narrowed down the military prowess of India and Pakistan. Americas assistance to Pakistan could be a retaliatory step considering the fact that India and the Soviet Union had maintained a cordial relationship and this was beyond the comfort level of the US. The procurement emboldened Pakistan and it launched a fresh attack on India. India was however successful in fending off the attack and sought for international intervention in the region in order to settle the dispute. It was for the first time that an international player (other than the UN took part in the Kashmir issue). The Security Council passed Resolution 211 that mandated both the parties to respect the ceasefire and recede back to their respective territories  [8]  . Even countries like the US stopped pr oviding arms and ammunition to both the countries. This was instrumental in bringing both the parties to the talking table with the Soviet Union as the mediator. A treaty was signed by both parties in Tashkent and as per the treaty the armies of both the nations withdrew from the disputed area. The 1965 War clearly demonstrated the significance of the Kashmir issue and brought to light the roles played by China, the US and the Soviet in the geopolitics of South Asia. Unfortunately the cease fire that was promulgated by the foreign powers did not have any bearing in the relationship between the two countries.  [9]  It was only a titular agreement between the two countries that was aimed at preventing any sort of confrontation between the Indian Army and the Pakistani Army. The scenario in Kashmir and the plight of the Kashmiris did not undergo any change after the war. c. 1999 War A recurrent military-hybrid shift occurred in the 1980s through to the 1990s. After establishing a military regime through a coup in 1977, General Zia-ul-Haq came to rely significantly upon Islamist groups for domestic political legitimacy.  [10]  It was in this era that militancy in the region reached new heights. India blamed the Pakistani intelligence agencies for providing financial and logistical support to these militant groups. While a portion of the blame can be attributed to Pakistan, the Indian Army operating in the region had a role to play in the proliferation of these groups. What needs to be acknowledged is the fact there was widespread infiltration from the Pakistani borders into Indian soil. This was a constant feature in the 1990s and the Indian Army resorted to air attacks in a bid to stop infiltration into the country. It was claimed by India that the infiltrators were backed up by the Pakistani soldiers patrolling the borders. As the air raids to curb the infl ux heated up, Pakistan troops retaliated. The domino effect continued and this gave rise to the Kargil War in 1999. Constant shelling and airstrikes was a constant feature of the war. According to a Red Cross Report at least 30,000  [11]  were rendered homeless and they sought refuge in the Pakistani side of the Line of Control. Like the other two battles mentioned before, this too came to an end after an intervention by a third party. Pakistan and India both celebrated their victory in the war but the volatility in the region was never erased. As fallout of the insignificance of the war, the Prime Minister of Pakistan had to pave way for General Musharraf who seemingly focused on economic and social issues. Issue of the disputes The Kashmir conflict presents a very diabolical situation owing to the myriad opinions held by the two stakeholders on either side of the border. Both the sides have been steadfast in holding on to their whims and this has been the most serious issue. While numerous arrangements have been organized to tackle the issue, the unwillingness of both the parties has not allowed these talks to proceed in a positive direction. It is also noticeable that there has been a shift in the viewpoints when it comes to taking possession of Kashmir. A look into the perspectives of both the countries so that our understanding of the problem becomes clearer. a. The Pakistanis Argument Pakistan has always considered itself to be the deprived party when it comes to having a stake in Kashmir. In the earlier stages of the struggle, that is, the period just after 1947, Pakistan was over inclined to make Kashmir a part of it because of the higher percentage of Muslims in the region. So when India occupied the region, it was a feeling of deprivation for Pakistan. In retaliation to it, the Army tried to capture Kashmir but did not succeed. Pakistan has very often resorted to cataclysmic religious violence  [12]  in a bid to destabilize the region and win the sympathy of the Kashmiris. This was not the case in the earlier stage when fundamentalism with respect to religion was not tapped to secure Kashmir. During the early stages of the conflict, the Army was the face of Pakistan and it did not budge in revealing its intentions to claim Kashmir. However the brazen steps taken by the Army drew the wrath of international players and so it resorted to hardliners so that a proxy war could be fought. This can be proven from the fact that the number of infiltrations increasing in the period concerned. One would raise ones eyebrow considering the fact these people managed to cross the border with relative ease and without any sort of hindrance from the Pakistani side. Pakistan has always supported the UN Security Council resolutions that envisaged the Kashmiri people determining in a plebiscite  [13]  as opposed to the command over the region by the Indian Union. The recent statement by the president of Pakistan clearly demonstrates the fact that Pakistan is eager to see a Kashmir which is free from the clout of India. Zardari remarked that Pakistan will continue to support the right of the people of Jammu Kashmir to peacefully choose their destiny in accordance with the UN Security Councils long-standing resolutions on this matter.  [14]  India on the other hand has been able to ward off international pressure in spite of depriving the people of Kashmir a plebiscite rule. This has been the main concern for Pakistan because it would have preferred a neutral player controlling Kashmir instead of India. Occasionally, the Pakistani contingent has vented their war by making inroads into Kashmir through the coercive path. Pakistan has time and again improved its military might with the help of countries like China and Iran and when it felt that it could capture Kashmir, it instigated a war. Pakistan has also maintained s firm base in the Line of Control in the form of terrorist groups. Pakistan is now endeavoring to spread the cult of militancy and terrorism in new areas south of the Pir Panjal range in the Jammu region.  [15]  In this way Pakistan believes that the people of Kashmir would develop a deep sense of animosity towards India and enhance Pakistans propaganda of destabilizing the zone. One can even claim that Pakistan has been effective in this front as there have been numerous incidents involving tensions between Kashmir pundits and the majority Muslim population. The area covered by Azad Kashmir has been the nurturing ground for numerous fundamentalist groups namely Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad.  [16]  Pakistan believes that it is their right to fight a battle in the name of religion and to claim Kashmir. Though this perspective is not blatantly endorsed, there has been enough proof to validate this claim. Leaders of militant groups such as L akhvi and Hafeez Saeed have found safe havens in Pakistan and all attempts to extradite them have failed. b. Indias Argument India has always claimed to be the rightful rulers of Kashmir. It does not acknowledge the UNs opinion of considering Kashmir as a disputed region. Additionally India has meted out special treatment to the region by curbing most of the democratic rights. While India is a democratic region, Kashmir has a military rule. Only recently has the legitimacy of the plebiscite rule been felt. The three wars fought with Pakistan have made the country wary of Pakistans intention so it feels justified to ramp up the military operations in the region. Unfortunately the Army and the implementation of Armed Forces (Special Powers) Act (AFSPA) have given rise to controversies pertaining to human rights. Other moves included detaining suspected terrorists under Terrorist and Disruptive Activities (Prevention) Act, TADA (a controversial Act passed solely for this purpose), clamping unrest in the form of curfews, house to house searches and indiscriminate interrogation of the natives.  [17]  Throug h stringent rules India intends to keep the radical elements in check but on paper India establishes Kashmir as a democratic state with all the privileges of an autonomous state in the Indian Union. Kashmir is also of prime significance as it is the boiling point for the countries surrounding it. So by gaining extra mileage in any form India wants to exert its presence in the region. India considers such momentum important in order to curb the collusion between Pakistan and China against it. The wars in 1960s and the late 1990s were primarily initiated once Pakistan believed that it has the military prowess to defeat India. This confidence did not generate internally. The support extended by the US and China helped Pakistan improve its arsenal. So by maintain a firm base in Kashmir, India believes that it can negate the attacks perpetrated by Pakistan. Recent events show that the dispute over Kashmir has been taken to a new level after the increase in the number of infiltrators. India has been a victim of many terrorist activities in the past and the trace of the miscreants trailed up to the terrorist organizations in Kashmir and Pakistan. So India believes that unless it ramps up its military activities in Kashmir and the borders surrounding it the influx of such infiltrants would be in the ascendancy. As a result, the late 1980s witnessed a number of measures that was aimed at stopping the inflow. All men above the age of eighteen were issued identity cards and paramilitary patrols were stepped up in the region.  [18]  In spite of these measures and the increased surveillance across the borders, India has been a victim to the infiltrators who were responsible for carrying out blasts across cities and for carrying out the 26/11 Mumbai bloody drama, which involved attacks in as many as 11 places in the city that left 183 people , including 22 foreigners, dead.  [19]   Facets of Dispute Resolution There has been diversity in opinions when commentators narrate the current situation in Kashmir. While most are optimistic in their assessment there are many who still believe (especially separatists occupying Kashmir) that there no hope for Kashmir in the near future. This can be remarked from the increased activism by separatist groups. Even ordinary citizens from either side of the border perceive each other as threats. The era from 1947 to 2000 was unproductive as there were no resolute measures in resolving the stalemate. However according to the first school of thought there is a silver lining that seems to have appeared in this century. In the new century, changing trends in all fields of knowledge and the emphasis of people-to-people contact has become important for promoting mutual understanding between India and Pakistan.  [20]  It is fortunate that both the cultures are similar and this could be a basis for a friendly relationship. Both the countries have nuclear capabilities and this has decreased the possibility of a full scale war. Recently there have been talks that have promoted trade between the two nations. India was never in the most favored list of countries for trade with a very narrow positive list of 786 goods.  [21]  Pakistan has recently considered Indias case and one could soon see a transition in which bilateral trade is conducted between the two countries and this can be a catalyst in the peace talks between the two nations. Kashmir would also be an important region as it could intermediate the high volumes of trade that would ensue once the barriers to trade open up. On the flip side there has been numerous instances in which the talks to promote peace have failed miserably. The failed talks have been a major bottleneck in the way ahead because once such an event occurs there is a period of sustained inactivity in which both the parties refuse to cooperate in the peace dialogues. Most talks seem to revolve around Kashmir, border disputes and water sharing agreement. Unfortunately most issues remain unsolved for a very long time. Pakistans association with China also raises eyebrows in India and this could be a deterrent in the way ahead. India has never accepted China to be a super power in the subcontinent and there have been occasions of territorial dispute between India and China.  [22]  This has been a critical determinant in the interrelationship between India, Pakistan and China. The formation of a separatist group has added to the woes of Pakistan and India by adding another dimension to the Kashmir issue. The separatist groups have also started being vocal in demanding greater control through ideological leanings, political strategies, and goals  [23]  and have therefore started participating in the political agenda of Kashmir. Pakistan have always supposed these groups probably to avenge the 1971 episode in which India supported the creation of Bangladesh which was then a part of Pakistan. The separatists have deep animosity towards the Indian government and they are ruthless in displaying their discontent towards people who favor India. While the challenges that the stakeholders face is mottled, all the parties (India, Pakistan, Separatist and even China) should look to bring peace in the region. There can be numerous ways of coming out of the quagmire but it will require concerted efforts from every party and at the same time each player should be willing to be more open minded in accepting the credibility of the other party. Resolving the Kashmir Dispute The first step would be to demarcate the boundaries of Kashmir in a manner such that all the parties agree to it. It should be noted that the people of Kashmir should have their consensus before any line is drawn. Moreover history has proven that the Line of Control is a very volatile territory and very often the army of one country has a tendency to encroach upon foreign territory. It is therefore advisable that both the countries retract their army to a distance that is of considerable length. Involving a third party in the dispute has rarely paid off but the two countries could have a third party to monitor the activity at the borders. No third party would be willing to provide such support unless the financial assistance is provided by India and Pakistan. This will obviously be a costly affair but it will reconcile the two troops within safe distance from each other. While this is done, the Kashmir people can have their say in deciding their fate. Mere division of territories also presents numerous problems. Kashmir is home to various religious sects and this aspect of it has to be respected while moving along the lines of a division. It is highly improbable for the Hindu dominated region to accept Pakistan while the Buddhist contingent have always opposed the idea of a separate state.  [24]  Therefore when a divide is created based on vote structure, the people who will be the minority may face serious threats from the majority population. They would want to reside in a place where they find safety in numbers and the immigration of minority population may not be a smooth process as witnessed in 1947 after the partition took place. The nuclearization of India and Pakistan is thus an extraordinary moment in the narrative of Partition: both its telos, in that it confirms the national jingoism and the bloodthirsty hatreds that propelled the mass slayings and movements of population in 1947.  [25]  Therefore even if Kashmi r was to be divided based on religious inclinations, both India and Pakistan must provide a safe environment for the minority groups. It is the responsibility of the governments on either side to include people in the administrative processes. Both should give more liberty, not merely by granting elections but also by rolling back restrictions on business, terminating governmental monopolies in trade and commerce, and encouraging international investment bodies such as the World Bank and the Asian Development Bank.  [26]  This is one area where both the countries have failed miserably. Preoccupying the Kashmir people with trade and commerce could have at least reduced dissatisfaction from the indigenous masses. 80% of the people depend on agriculture while the mineral rich state has not been fully exploited for commercial production.  [27]  Kashmir is also a very scenic place and has the scope for exploiting the tourism industry that has the potential to provide job opportunities to a lot many Kashmiris. The other facet of facilitating trade and commerce is that Kashmir will be integrated with their respect ive Unions. It will also provide scope for developing infrastructure like schools, roads and hospitals. With quality education and prosperous job opportunities, hardline groups will not be able to lure the youth into committing radical activities. While sections of the society have been able to lead a life of opulence there are many who have been deprived of basic necessities.  [28]  It was primarily the children of the latter section of the society who had been hoodwinked into pursuing radical activities. Extensive infrastructure coupled with quality education could be a way of appeasing the unrest among youth who rarely have anything to do. While control over Kashmir has been the contentious issue for India and Pakistan, both the countries have failed to resolve issues to sharing of water bodies. Even if the territories were to be demarcated aptly in order to suit the likings of the local masses, Kashmir presents another problem that is very significant. The Kashmir imbroglio has always been looked upon as a territorial dispute and water sharing have been given little thought to water sharing treaties. Both have so far managed to uphold a World Bank-mediated Indus Water Treaty (IWT) that provides mechanisms for resolving disputes over water sharing.  [29]  One cannot rely on the Treaty being a resolute stance taken by both the countries and any form of water scarcity in any country could lead to non-conformant of the agreement. Hostilities over water sharing between India and its more benevolent neighbor Bangladesh has already started and one can only expect the same relationship between India and Pakistan if any sc arcity arises. The Indus Water Treaty (1960)  [30]  that was intermediated by the World Bank has been able to keep both the parties at ease and the issue has not been the mooting point when peace dialogues have taken place. However one should realize the fact that the situation is still volatile. Over the years the issues concerning India and Pakistan have been Kashmir, insurgency, trade etc. Once these issues get resolved it is very likely that the issues related to water sharing may crop up and give rise to hostility between the two nations. As there is a rapid growth in urbanization there is a scarcity of potable water. Waterlogging, salinity, groundwater depletion and irrigation inefficiency continue to threaten agricultural production  [31]  and the Indus Water Treaty should be strong enough to be insulated from these phenomenon. It is also high time that the two countries looked at each other for support rather than going to international agencies. Both the countries h ave developed significantly over the years and they have sufficient resources to assess their situation better. Relying on the World Bank implies distrust towards each other and a sense of incapability to solve critical issues. Finally both the countries should not resort to any means that destabilizes the region. On the Pakistani side there is the Inter-Services Intelligence that is accused of training militants not only in Kashmir but also in regions bounding Afghanistan. People holding responsible positions in Pakistans administration along with many retired personnel have hinted on the relationship between the Inter-Services Intelligence and the militant groups.  [32]  On the Indian side there is the Research and Analysis Wing that is accused of spying into Pakistan and involving in secret activities. Throughout the Soviet/Afghan War the Research and Analysis Wing was responsible for the planning and execution of terrorist activities in Pakistan to deter Pakistan from support of Afghan liberation movement against Indias ally, the Soviet Union.  [33]  Both sides accuse each other for facilitating bombing activities and resorting to means that destabilizes the region. This should be stopped immedi ately if both countries want to look at a brighter future. Sponsoring terrorism can have a retaliatory effect as illustrated by the Al-Qaeda Pakistan relation today. While Pakistan maintained a cordial relationship with the outfit, the 9/11 episode mandated Pakistan to take steps that would destabilize the group. Pakistan still faces a difficult choice; whether to support the group in order to take advantage of state sponsored terrorism or to completely eradicate the presence of these fundamentalist group from Pakistani soil. The Kashmir conflict has become more complicated since its inception and requires a thorough analysis of the issue in order to come to any definite solution. Moreover it is cannot be tackled by a one dimens

Concepts of Political Deviance and Crime

Concepts of Political Deviance and Crime Political deviance is a across the board perception which is the greater part of the circumstances identified with the political deviance. The majority of the circumstances, it is rehearsed by the people who are in expert. Political deviance is executed in the position of administration or people attempting to have changes in social changes. It concentrates on implies that will ascribe to fear based oppression and furthermore defiance with the guide of social equality. There are the presumptions of obligation by people to accomplish their represents diverse reasons and purposes. The presumptions of obligations are qualities with the dubious origination which is as the results of the ground of legislative issues (Lauderdale, 2010). Public attitude or the political opinion is the qualities of the people which are amassed with the overall public of the favored country. Additionally, it can be said to be the unpredictability of how assessments are seen by various gatherings of individuals and the general presumptions they will have towards the political deviance. The factors which are related with the states of mind of general society about the political deviance incorporate; the political aberrance is impacted essentially by the media and the adequacy of police in a given nation. The power of the media creates fear and punitive attributes of the public. Also, inclusive variables which are associated with the attitudes of the public in the relation of the political deviance includes gender, education levels, race, income, age and in the same time status of individuals on matters of marital. All these are the attributes are variables which are associated with political deviance. Normalization is the process of restructuring of available data so that they can be in a position to meet the desired essential tasks. Also, it can be said to be the strategy of showing tables in to such an extent that the results of utilizing databases can be as proposed by the clients. It can include the reason for replicating or copying information in the premises of the databases with a specific end goal to make extra tables. In this manner, it distinguishes the information which should show up in the database and in a similar time recognizable proof of the connections between the tables and the favored segments (Blekesaune Quadagno, 2003). Political deviance has been normalized in the United States of America in the recent times of the history of the country. The normalization of deviance in the United States has produced a ton of qualities of the sound administration of the nation over the previous years. The standardization of deviance has been said to be have come about because of the expansive organization of violations and in a similar time the disappointments of corporates in the United States of America. It is an ever-display peril and prompted to the intricacy of establishments which oversees or represents the whole world. The normalization of deviance has ruled United States current states of affairs and has gradually been argued to be an acknowledged situation from the passageways of authority or supremacy. At that point it has been perceived by the corporate media and in the long run by the general population because of absence of energy to block such deviance of political angles. Since deviance has been socially being standardized, there is no longer checking of activities which can profoundly be insufficient in the law of America. The international laws which would be advanced in political systems in the demonstration of times to have been supplanted with the ambassadors laws which have no power in leading such statements (Rhoades Browning, 2007). The United States of America has projected the abolishment of the United Nations charter for the country to remain aggressive than any other country in the globe. Also, the state is conducting harmful operations in other nations such as Pakistan, Iraq, Syria, and Somalia and at the same time Libya. Besides, Special Forces of the United States conducts secret operations in other countries illegally. Threats conducted to Iran by the United States even though there was the signing of a diplomatic which was to ensure that both countries remained peacefully in settling their differences. Recently, the statement of Donald trump was backing the United States threatening other countries, and it is well known that every threat spearheaded war in the world. The justifications of the United States of America was the idea of self-defense but rather increased deviance between America and other countries. Thus the Americans are conducting what can be said to be a cold war to other countries (Piven Cloward, 2002). On social aspects, deviance has employed, and there have been the violating of the accepted norms in the enacted rules governing America. Norms are expectations which individuals in a country should be guided by. The legalization of marriages of the same gender and sexes have left the world in worry for what the United States of America have legalized. In conclusion, the United States of America have normalized the political deviance. References Lauderdale, P. (2010). A political analysis of deviance (pp. 72-91). Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Blekesaune, M., Quadagno, J. (2003). Public attitudes toward welfare state policies a comparative analysis of 24 nations. European Sociological Review, 19(5), 415-427. Rhoades, C., Browning, P. (2007). Normalization at what price? Mental Retardation, 15(2), 24. Piven, F. F., Cloward, R. A. (2002). Normalizing collective protest. Frontiers in social movement theory, 301.

Breast Cancer :: Health

Breast Cancer In the United States in 2005 alone, 43,063 died from breast cancer. It is the number two cancer killer and the number one cancer in females ages 15 to 54. On average if a woman gets this disease, their life expectancy drops nineteen and a half years. This cancer is within the top three cancers of all woman above the age of 15, and comprises 6% of all health care costs in the U.S. totaling an astounding 35 billion dollars a year. An average woman is said to have a one in thirty chance of getting the cancer, but if that person had family history of the disease, their chances have been measured up to a one in six chance. Sixty ©nine percent of African ©American women survive from it, and there are predicted to be nearly two million new cases reported this year in the U.S. The disease is breast cancer. Breast cancer is a group of rapidly reproducing, undifferentiated cells in the area of the breast in women. The earliest changes occur in the epithelial cells of the terminal end buds (TEB) of the breast milk ductal system. While the outlining steps of breast cancer are unknown, the cells in the breast trigger a reaction of cell reproduction. These new cancer cells form tumors. If cancer cells are active or are considered malign, the tumor grows at tremendous speeds, and may end up in metastasis. Metastasis is a complex process in which cells break away from their primary tumors, and via the blood supply or through the lymph system relocate into other organs, thus spreading cancer throughout the body if left untreated. Generally, if a lump is smaller than one centimeter, it is considered benign, although every woman should consult her doctor about any unusual bumps or feeling in the chest. One sign of breast cancer results from ductal cancer in the breast. A once hollow open tube could be completely clogged up with cancerous cells thus leaving an awkward feeling in the chest area. Other complications that result from this cancer and others is on top of the clogging and cramming of the system, the body's need to not only supply for itself, but for the large tumors. Recently genes have been touted as a great cause of cancer. It now is thought among the medical community that while there are definite environmental contributors to cancer, even those people who are exposed to few carcinogens may suffer from disease that runs in their families. Among the genes that is being heavily researched is the gene BRCA1. In one of Breast Cancer :: Health Breast Cancer In the United States in 2005 alone, 43,063 died from breast cancer. It is the number two cancer killer and the number one cancer in females ages 15 to 54. On average if a woman gets this disease, their life expectancy drops nineteen and a half years. This cancer is within the top three cancers of all woman above the age of 15, and comprises 6% of all health care costs in the U.S. totaling an astounding 35 billion dollars a year. An average woman is said to have a one in thirty chance of getting the cancer, but if that person had family history of the disease, their chances have been measured up to a one in six chance. Sixty ©nine percent of African ©American women survive from it, and there are predicted to be nearly two million new cases reported this year in the U.S. The disease is breast cancer. Breast cancer is a group of rapidly reproducing, undifferentiated cells in the area of the breast in women. The earliest changes occur in the epithelial cells of the terminal end buds (TEB) of the breast milk ductal system. While the outlining steps of breast cancer are unknown, the cells in the breast trigger a reaction of cell reproduction. These new cancer cells form tumors. If cancer cells are active or are considered malign, the tumor grows at tremendous speeds, and may end up in metastasis. Metastasis is a complex process in which cells break away from their primary tumors, and via the blood supply or through the lymph system relocate into other organs, thus spreading cancer throughout the body if left untreated. Generally, if a lump is smaller than one centimeter, it is considered benign, although every woman should consult her doctor about any unusual bumps or feeling in the chest. One sign of breast cancer results from ductal cancer in the breast. A once hollow open tube could be completely clogged up with cancerous cells thus leaving an awkward feeling in the chest area. Other complications that result from this cancer and others is on top of the clogging and cramming of the system, the body's need to not only supply for itself, but for the large tumors. Recently genes have been touted as a great cause of cancer. It now is thought among the medical community that while there are definite environmental contributors to cancer, even those people who are exposed to few carcinogens may suffer from disease that runs in their families. Among the genes that is being heavily researched is the gene BRCA1. In one of

breif explination of characters and themes of catcher in the rye :: essays research papers

Catcher in the rye Vocabulary 1. Fencing - The art or sport of using a foil, epà ©e, or saber in attack and defense. 2. Grippe - an acute febrile highly contagious viral disease. 3. Phonies - Something not genuine; a fake. 4. Ashamed - Feeling shame or guilt. 5. Compulsory - Obligatory; required: a compulsory examination 6. Peculiar - Unusual or eccentric; odd. 7. Descriptive - Involving or characterized by description; serving to describe. 8. Conceited - Holding or characterized by an unduly high opinion of oneself; vain. 9. Psychoanalyzed - To analyze and treat by psychoanalysis. 10. Halitosis - The condition of having stale or foul-smelling breath. 11. Moron - A stupid person; a dolt. 12. Suave - Smoothly agreeable and courteous. 13. Ostracized - To banish from society; to put under the ban; to cast out from social, political, or private favor; as, he was ostracized by his former friends. 14. Bourgeois - A person whose attitudes and behavior are marked by conformity to the standards and conventions of the middle class. Questions 1. Why is Holden expelled from Pency? He flunks all of his classes, except English. 2. Identify the following characters and tell about Holden’s attitude toward them: Spencer: Holden's history teacher at Pencey Prep. Holden seems to dismiss his opinions because he is older and sick at the time. Ackley: Holden's next-door neighbor in his dorm at Pencey Prep. Holden feels that Ackley is a phony because he lies about his sexual experiences. Stradlater: Holden’s roommate at Pencey Prep. Holden calls him a â€Å"secret slob† because his one razor is very dirty. Holden also calls him a â€Å"sexy bastard† because he is well liked and experienced with girls. Sally Hayes: A girl who Holden has dated and known for a long time. He thinks she is â€Å"stupid† even though he says she is well read. He also calls her a phony quite a bit. Mr. Antonlini: Holden’s former English teacher at the Elkton Hills School. Holden seems to respect him and find him to be clever. 3. Which people in the novel does Holden like? Why does he like these characters and dislike others? Holden’s main distinction for liking or not -liking someone is whether or not he thinks they are phonies. Some of the characters he likes are his sister and brothers, Mr. Antolini, Jane and Carl Luce. 4. Holden has trouble communicating with adults. Pick three adults in the novel and show how Holden â€Å"miss-communicates† with them. Spencer: Holden doesn’t respond to his concern and lecture the way an average student would by listening, instead he starts thinking of how he’s in a robe and how he doesn’t’ like to see old men’s chests or having to be around someone with grippe.

Essay --

My Capstone will be the replacement of aging Microsoft Windows XP business computers with newer computers running Microsoft Windows 7. Although Windows 8.1 is currently available, I have chosen to deploy Windows 7 for a myriad of reasons. Windows 7 has gained popularity and a reputation for being a solid replacement for Windows XP. I have worked (officially) in the IT field for over 4 years now, and have been involved in multiple Windows 7 migration projects. I will use my previous experience, in addition to my newly developed skills, to produce a successful plan for rolling out this operating system on a widespread basis. In my experience, projects such as this are not planned very well. My goal is to make sure that every aspect of this project is fully documented, so the steps may be reproduced as needed for this project or duplicated for future projects. This project will be thoughtfully planned from start to finish, with clearly set expectations. Of course, in the real world, not everything can be accounted for at the time, and one must be flexible with the execution of a project of this magnitude, but with the proper planning any obstacle can be overcome. â€Æ' Review of other work During my tenure as an IT professional and during the preparation of this project, I have completed countless hours of research and performed many hands-on tests. One of the case studies I have researched is the Windows 7 migration for Boeing, based out of Chicago, IL. Boeing determined that they needed to ensure a global business strategy, with an increased competitive edge and minimal impact to employees. In order to accomplish this, their IT department performed 6 months of readiness testing on 3,800 applications, 1,800 of which were determined to... ...em to reduce staff by 25%. Their new, modern infrastructure is now easier to administer, and they were able to take advantage of newer efficient applications that were not possible before, such as Microsoft Office Communications Server and SCCM for patch management and application delivery. Users were able to get up to speed quickly with the familiar interface, and overall surveys showed that employees were pleased with the ease of use of the new systems, as many were already using newer operating systems and software at home. The new environment is now more secure, which means less patching for system engineers and less time spent working on machines. Inclusion of features like the Snipping Tool eliminated the need for third party software (and additional cost). PDO also reduced power consumption by using the power options scheduling features included in Windows 7.

Nationalism in Italy during the 1900’s Essay

By 1871, the separate states of Italy had finally become a unified country. Nationalism played a ver large part in this unification process. If it hadn’t been for the people of this region having a strong sense of pride for their country, Italy would still be split up into many nations as it was in the early 1800’s. There were certain people who helped move this process along tremendously, including Cavour, Mazzini and Garibaldi. All these great men helped form new movements or ideas. Then in the late 1800’s, the people of Italy had a growing sense of nationalism, which led to many changes in the future of their states. Feelings of nationalism arose while Napoleon I was in rule and then later, developed into large movements. Even more importantly, thinkers and writers who tried to create interests in the Italian traditions, ended up bringing up the Risorgimento, which in Italian means – † the resurgence†. Risorgimento was a nationalistic movement aimed to liberation and unification. Patriots of the Risorgimento worked together in their aims of liberation and unification, however, they disagreed on what type of government that would come into place after this unification. Secret societies called Carbonari, which was created and led by Mazzini, who furthered nationalistic feelings and was even imprisoned for the uprisings he caused. Mazzini was an idealist and envisioned a united Italy and devoted his entire life to this goal. Mazzini is also well known for creating another movement called â€Å"Young Italy†, where he called all Italian patriots to join. Cavour, the chief minister of Sardinia, was the man who brought many of these ideas together by using the establishing of new banks, factories, railroads, ships and treaties to lessen the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, and create and united, industrialized Italy. Unlike Mazzini, Cavour was a realist and was always determined to get results from the movements that took place under his rule. These strong feelings made new movements and wars inevitable. Another man that was devoted to Italian freedom was Giuseppe Garibaldi. He  was in and out of the country with exiles and revolutions, but his most important revolutionary plot was that with Cavour. This plot was forming an army, later called the Red Shirts, to free the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, invade Sicily and seize Naples. The inner conflicts of Italy were crucial to the fight for independence, but the wars with the outside countries were the ones that truly determined the fate of the nation. In 1855, Cavour and Napoleon III secretly met to plan a war against Austria to free Northern Italy. The war began in 1859 and was successful for the first three months until Napoleon decided he didn’t want Italy to be united after all, and signed a secret armistice with Austria. During those first three months, many states overthrew their Austrian rulers and requested an annexation to Sardinia. However, after this major shift in power, many rulers returned to their states that they had originally governed. All throughout the battles fought, the people still embraced the hope they all had for Italy as a free, unified nation. In 1860, a long awaited election was let forth to all the states excluding Rome and Venetia, which were still under Napoleon’s rule, and it was nearly unanimous that the Sardinian king, Victor Emmanuel II would rule the kingdom of Italy. The Italians had nearly achieved their aims of unity and had a parliament representing each state. Their ambition was satisfied when Napoleon III had to pull his troops out of Rome and Venetia for the Franco-Prussian war and they were captured and completed Italy. Even though this was wonderful for Italy to be united as a whole, they were inexperienced with government and were still very much divided by traditions and independence. The Mafia and heavy taxes caused a lot of tension on the country. Although, these were not the results of an earlier disunity, because before uniting, they could have easily had internal conflicts, but when united as a country, it really brings out the problems that certain parts of the country have with one another. Nevertheless, by 1871, Italy had finally reached the point of a unified country, but it still had a long way to go before it became the strong, stable nation it is today.

Higher Education Marketing Mix

CHAPTER 3 MARKETING’S ROLE IN HIGHER EDUCATION 3. 1 INTRODUCTION Chapter 2 introduced some of the major changes and trends that have taken place in the higher education environment both internationally and locally. Although higher education institutions can be classified as non-profit organisations, the challenges discussed in Chapter 2 necessitate higher education institutions to take on the organisation-like behaviour of profit organisations and to become more marketingoriented.An understanding of the environment in which higher education institutions operate, provides an essential background against which to understand and assess the benefits of focusing on students as customers. If higher education institutions understand the landscape in which they operate, they can begin to plan to serve the market effectively and efficiently with their marketing strategy. Being marketingoriented requires that organisations have knowledge on external forces (as explained in Chapter 2), b ut also knowledge on customers’ needs and wants (to be addressed in Chapter 4).It is against this backdrop of changes in the environment, such as the decrease in government funding and the increase in competition, that the need for marketing in higher education can be seen. In order to survive and to develop a sustainable competitive advantage in a changing higher education landscape, higher education institutions should satisfy the needs of their customers by adding value. Institutions should provide more benefits to their customers than competitors if they want to stay competitive.In the competitive environment in which higher education institutions operate (refer to Chapter 2), enhanced customer satisfaction may be one of the ways in which institutions can create and sustain a competitive advantage. This can be achieved with the effective application of the marketing mix elements. Marketing, and more specific a market-orientation, can provide a detailed understanding of th e needs of ustomers and ensure that higher education institutions address the needs in as – 73 – efficient and comprehensive manner as possible. In short, higher education institutions need to set marketing objectives and formulate a marketing strategy. Given the market-oriented focus and importance of the marketing mix elements, the main focus of this chapter will be on higher education institutions’ formulation and implementation of the elements of the services marketing mix.This chapter will explore the literature available on the changing role of marketing, the marketing concept, market- and marketing-orientation, consumer behaviour and the integration of all the units of a higher education institution to formulate a service product strategy, price strategy, distribution strategy, communication strategy, people strategy, physical evidence strategy and process strategy in order to meet the needs of students. 3. 2 THE CHANGING ROLE OF MARKETING Marketing plays a major role in any organisation and is viewed by Lamb et al. 2004:5) as a process that starts with identifying customer groups, finding out about their needs and wants, matching what the organisation can offer with what the customer wants and then effectively communicating and selling it to the customer. Although the primary aim of marketing is to satisfy the needs of customers, it involves a cluster of activities such as product/service innovation, design, development, distribution, advertising, selling and how the product/service is acquired and used by the customer.Machado and Cassim (2002:2) regard marketing as the process of planning and executing the conception, pricing, promotion and distribution of ideas, goods and services to create exchanges that satisfy individual and organisational objectives. Mowen (1995:7) states that the importance of understanding consumer behaviour is found in the definition of marketing as a human activity directed at satisfying needs and wants t hrough a human exchange process. Effective marketing requires a higher education institution to identify their target audiences, understand them, and communicate with them as directly and interactively as possible (Laurer, 2006).According to Shoemaker (1999), marketing is the proactive management of the relationship between a higher education institution and its various – 74 – markets by using the tools of marketing: service product, place, price, promotion, process, people and physical evidence. Marketing’s greater contribution lies in its ability to facilitate the exchange process that takes place between the non-profit organisation such as the higher education institution, and each of the customer groups it addresses (Sargeant, 2005:295).Marketing can provide a detailed understanding of the needs of such customers and ensure that the institution addresses these needs in as efficient and comprehensive manner as possible. This understanding of customers’ needs can aid organisations in creating and sustaining a competitive advantage. Lynch and Baines (2004:171) found that higher education institutions’ sustainable competitive advantages are usually based on superior knowledge, reputation, innovation or architectural related advantages.However, marketing is not stagnant and over the years the marketing activities of organisations have changed. Kolter (2003) and Strydom, Jooste and Cant (2000:10) identify four stages that strongly influence the evolution of organisations’ marketing activities. These stages are referred to as production, sales, marketing and societal marketing. The production orientation focuses on the internal capabilities of the organisation rather than the needs of the market, while a sales orientation is based on the premise that people will buy more if aggressive sales techniques are used.Both of these orientations lack a customer focus. Organisations realise the importance of marketing and building long-term relationships with their customers; thus, a marketing orientation. The societal marketing orientation builds on the marketing orientation but adds that customer value must be delivered in such a way that it maintains or improves the society’s wellbeing. According to Kotler and Fox (1995:11), there are also definite stages in the evolution of marketing in higher education.The focus has moved from â€Å"marketing is unnecessary† to â€Å"marketing is promotion† to â€Å"marketing is positioning† to the stage where in some cases marketing is seen as part of strategic planning for higher education institutions. Law (2002:4) is of the opinion that higher education institutions in South Africa are moving from â€Å"marketing is promotion† to more emphasis on positioning and strategic planning. This stage is also described as the â€Å"marketing company† era. The marketing – 75 – ompany era is characterised by short- and lon g-term marketing planning and the whole organisation’s efforts are guided by the marketing concept (Perreault & McCarthy 2002:34). The marketing concept is a management philosophy with the basic premises that an organisation needs to research the needs and wants of customers and then produce products or services that will satisfy these needs and wants (Strydom, Jooste & Cant, 2000:12; and Kohli & Jaworski, 1990:467). The marketing concept will be explained in the next section. 3. 3 THE MARKETING CONCEPTChurchill and Peter (1998:12) describe the implementation of the marketing concept as an organisation that satisfies customer needs and wants as a means to achieve their own objectives. Although it seems simple, it is complex in the sense that changes within the economic, social, political and technological environment, as discussed in Chapter 2, constantly leads to changing customer needs and wants. Lamb et al. (2004:17) state that institutions who want to survive in the futur e will have to be customer-focused, market-driven, global in scope and flexible in its ability to deliver superior value to ustomers whose preferences and expectations change continuously. Foxall and Goldsmith (1998:7) feel that consumer orientation stems from an organisation’s adoption and implementation of the marketing mix (price, service product, promotion, place, people, process, physical evidence), but adds that the adoption and implementation of the marketing concept has four major implications: †¢ The success of any organisation depends above all on the consumers and what they are willing to accept and pay. †¢ The organisation must be aware of what the market wants, preferably well before production commences. Consumer wants must be continually monitored and measured so that, through service product and market development, the organisation keeps ahead of competitors. †¢ Top management must achieve the integration of all the components of the marketing s trategy into a single strategic plan, based on knowledge of consumer behaviour. – 76 – Mowen (1995:4) underlines the importance of the marketing concept by stating that the marketing concept embodies the view that an industry is a customer satisfying process, not a goods producing process.An industry begins with the customer and its needs, not a patent, raw material, or selling skill. The general acceptance of the concept that an organisation functions to fulfil consumers’ needs and wants, through understanding their exchange partner (customers), makes the study of consumer behaviour, and thus this study, essential. Mowen (1995:5) and Churchill and Peter (1998:13) agree that the basic idea of the marketing concept is to give the customers what they want.However, consumers are not always sure of their wants or what they are being offered, and are much more open to persuasion than is commonly acknowledged by the marketing concept. The marketing concept is based on four basic principles: consumer orientation or the target market; long-term maximisation of profitability or another measure of long-term success, total organisation effort, and social responsibility (Kotler, 2003:20 and Perreault & McCarthy, 2002:34). The four principles of the marketing concept will be briefly explained below. 3. 3. THE PRINCIPLE OF CONSUMER ORIENTATION Strydom et al. (2000:12) view consumer orientation as the first principle of the marketing concept, indicating that all actions should be aimed at satisfying consumer needs, demands and preferences. Although this implies that the consumer objective is to achieve total need satisfaction, it does not mean that an organisation must provide for unrealistic consumer needs. According to Kotler (2003:20), organisations have to carefully choose their target markets and then prepare a tailored marketing programme.Research conducted by Conway, Mackay and Yorke (1994:35) on higher education institutions in the United Kingdom (UK) found that more than half of the institutions did not have a customer orientation in their planning and that most institutions merely pay lip service to the variety of target markets they serve. This study will attempt to gather the necessary information to enable institutions to become more customer oriented in understanding the needs and wants of students, specifically regarding the choice factors and information sources used when selecting a university. 3. 3. THE PRINCIPLE OF INTEGRATION AND COORDINATION OF ACTIVITIES – 77 – Strydom et al. (2000:14) define a system as an integrated whole – a group of related units working together to achieve a joint objective. The second principle suggests that marketing activities of a higher education institution should be closely coordinated with each other and with other functional areas such as production, finance, administration, human resources and procurement. The marketing concept has been a useful mechanism in helping to unify the independent functional areas to increase customer satisfaction.All seven marketing mix instruments (price, service product, promotion, distribution, people, process and physical evidence) should complement and reinforce one another in such a way that the student will prefer the institution’s service offerings to that of competitors. 3. 3. 3 THE PRINCIPLE OF MAXIMISING LONG-TERM SUCCESS The third principle is directed at achieving market share, return on investment and the objectives of the organisation. Marketing plans and corporate goals must be closely coordinated to ensure profitability.Maximising profitability is the primary objective of a profit-seeking organisation and can be achieved only through the consideration of consumer needs. Non-profit organisations attempt to achieve some other objective than profit. This does not mean than they are uninterested in income, as they have to generate cash to survive. However, their primary goal is non-econom ic, and for higher education institutions that is to provide education. Although there is an emergence of for-profit higher education institutions, as discussed in Chapter 2, non-profit higher education institutions also need to focus on their long-term sustainability.For-profit organisational success is measured ultimately by profitability. For non-profit organisations, measuring success is not so easy. Higher education institutions’ success can be measured in research output terms, number of students taught, student pass rate, range of qualifications of staff or even the quality of teaching. The combination of these factors makes the measurement of success difficult and can lead to conflict. For example: more students and larger classes may reduce time needed for research by staff to deliver the required research outputs.The principle of maximising long-term success is therefore more complex in higher education institutions than for for-profit organisations. Marketing is of growing importance to non-profit organisations, because of the need to generate funds in an increasingly competitive arena. Even – 78 – higher education institutions that rely on government funding must show how their work is of benefit to society and must meet the needs of their customers. 3. 3. 4 THE PRINCIPLE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITYZikmund and D’Amico (2001:20) state that the pure marketing concept disregards environmental changes and problems and focuses on short-term customer satisfaction rather than on the long-term wellbeing of society. Involvement and concern for the environment and the society in which the marketing task is performed are typical characteristics of a strategic approach to marketing management. Organisations should therefore strive to obtain the goodwill of the society, rather than only the support of the target market. By demonstrating social responsibility, higher education institutions can earn the goodwill of the public and governme nt.This has a long-term dimension that can favourably influence the future of any institution in terms of funding and a steady supply of customers. From the discussion of the marketing concept and its principles, it is clear that by accepting the marketing concept, institutions have recognised that consumers and their behaviour has a direct bearing on the formulation of a marketing strategy – and therefore the relevance of this study. The marketing concept helps to bring focus and enables an organisation to satisfy consumers’ needs (Perreault & McCarthy, 2002:41).If higher education institutions want to be successful in today’s dynamic higher education landscape, competing for resources, support and customers, they too should adhere to principles of the marketing concept, especially being consumeroriented, when conducting their business. Applied to higher education, the marketing concept holds that higher education institutions should conduct their planning bear ing in mind and recognising that they exist primarily for the purpose of providing a service product to students. Campus activities should thus focus on satisfying the needs of students (Massad & Tucker, 2000:1-5).The philosophy of the marketing concept forms the underlying basis for an organisation’s market- and marketing-orientation. These two concepts will be briefly explained in the next section. – 79 – 3. 4 MARKET-ORIENTATION AND MARKETING-ORIENTATION Throughout the literature, the term market-orientation and marketing-orientation is used interchangeably (Payne, 1988; Kohli, Jaworski, & Kumar, 1993 and Sharp, 1991). Notice should however be taken of a small group of authors, such as Cravens, Lamb and Crittenden (1996), who argue that there are slight differences between the two concepts.However, it is not the purpose of this study to argue or investigate if there are differences between these concepts, but rather to show how the adherence to these concepts can enable higher education institutions to survive and grow (Voon, 2006:598). 3. 4. 1 MARKET-ORIENTATION Market-orientation refers to everyone in the organisation being committed to the customer and adapting in a timely way to meeting the changing needs of the customer. Market-orientation is a bias towards the market, requiring knowledge of customer needs and wants, competitors and external forces (Evans, James & Tomes, 1996:209).Kasper (2002:1047) defines a market-orientation as the degree to which an organisation and all its thinking and acting (internally as well as externally) is guided and committed to the factors determining the market behaviour of the organisation itself and its customers. Kohli and Jaworski (1990:3) define market-orientation as the activities involved in the implementation of the marketing concept. An organisation with a market-orientation determines the needs and wants of the target market and delivers the desired satisfaction more effectively and efficien tly than the competition.Thus, market-orientation extends beyond the marketing concept philosophy, as it also offers a process for delivering customer value. A market-oriented organisation understands customer preference and requirements and effectively combines and directs the skills and resources of the entire organisation to satisfy customers’ needs. According to Kasper (2002:1052), a robust market-orientation has become a strategic necessity for any service organisation due to increasing market turbulence and intensifying competition.He states that the market-orientation of an organisation can be seen as a particular position on a scale ranging from being truly market-oriented to not being market-oriented at all. Results from Kasper’s research show that a market-oriented service organisation has an open, employee-oriented, result-oriented, pragmatic, – 80 – professional, well-communicated, marketing goals-oriented, market knowledge (customers and comp etition) system with dedicated employees that know what customer focus and service means.Market forces (refer to Chapter 2) changed the landscape of higher education into a competitive environment requiring a market-orientation (Koerwer, 2001). According to Couturier (2002), reduction in government support and increase in new technologies and improved learning produce students with high expectations and this further pressurises higher education institutions to become more market-oriented. Shoemaker (1999) states that glossy brochures, catchy slogans and the existence of marketing programmes do not give higher education institutions a market-orientation.Marketorientation requires a philosophy and a culture that go deep in the organisation. This means an institution where students are involved in the service production process and where administration, faculty and support staff work together effectively. A marketorientation requires a commitment and power from top management. Shoemake r (1999) states that a market-oriented higher education institution is characterised by: †¢ A top management actively involved in providing institutional marketing leadership; †¢ A marketing process integrated to reflect, recognise and involve all institutional stakeholders; Marketing plans that are well distributed among top institutional officers; †¢ Outside marketing consultants used to build and enrich the institutional culture; †¢ Regular and structured marketing research studies of all important stakeholder areas; †¢ A marketing-oriented planning culture that includes the participation of all stakeholder areas; and †¢ Marketing evaluation systems in place to assure continuous monitoring and improvement of marketing programmes and strategies. – 81 – 3. 4. 2 MARKETING-ORIENTATIONAn organisation with a marketing-orientation adheres to the principles of the marketing concept and offer customers what they need (Perreault & McCarthy, 2002: 37). Marketing-orientation implies that the main task of a higher education institution is to determine the needs and wants of target markets and to satisfy them through the design, communication, pricing, delivery of appropriate and competitively viable programmes and services (Kotler & Fox, 1995:8). Laurer (2006) states that strategic plans of higher education institutions will have to become marketing-oriented plans.This begins with an environmental scan that determines how society is changing and then outlines how programmes, pricing and access to learning (distribution), employees (people) and process will meet these changing needs. According to Massad and Tucker (2000), higher education institutions in the United States have embraced a marketing-oriented approach to admission. They state that the trend began in the late 1970’s in the USA and is driven by increased competition and a shrinking enrolment pool. Higher education institutions in Shanghai started in 1999 to re form their policies to be more marketing-oriented (People Daily, 1999).These policies include practical plans such as providing enough residence and departmental buildings for students and lecturers, logistic service renovations, and improved logistic service quality. Several reasons exist why achieving a marketing-orientation is problematic for some higher education institutions (Sargeant, 2005:297): †¢ Conflict between management and academic interest. There is a split in the responsibility for dealing with customers between departments and an institution’s central administrative function. †¢ The lack of a strategic perspective.Courses are sometimes established and maintained for the status of the department or institution rather than where there is clear evidence of an economic viability or long-term demand. †¢ The diversity of the marketing activity. Marketing is conducted by a variety of players, such as the admissions officer, school liaison officers, res earch officer and faculties, making the coordination difficult. †¢ Academic value. Some institutions still perceive marketing as being incompatible with their education mission. – 82 – Nevertheless, higher education institutions must aim to become marketing-oriented.The market concept forms the underlying philosophy for both a market and marketingorientation. A marketing-orientation is an all-embracing concept referring to both behavioural and philosophical standing of marketing, therefore incorporating the market-orientation. Thus, for the purpose of this study, the term marketing-orientation will be used to indicate a market- and/or marketing-orientation. 3. 5 MARKETING STRATEGY AND CONSUMER BEHAVIOUR According to Hawkins et al. (2001:7), an effective marketing strategy is based on knowledge of the environment, competitors and customers.The study of customers’ needs, perceptions, aspirations, motivations, culture and decision-making processes is called co nsumer behaviour (Du Plessis & Rousseau 2005:8). Consumer behaviour serves as a basis for marketing strategy formulation. Figure 3. 1 indicates that an understanding of consumer behaviour is the basis for marketing strategy formulation and will serve as a visual guide for the remainder of this chapter. It also visually shows the integration and link between Chapter 2, Chapter 3 and Chapter 4. Figure 3. begins with the analysis of the market (Step 1) in which the organisation is operating. It requires a detailed analysis of the organisation’s capabilities, strengths and weaknesses, competition, the economical and technological forces affecting the market, and the current and potential customers in the market (refer to Chapter 2). The consumer analysis component of the first step enables an organisation to identify groups of individuals with similar needs. The identified market segments, in step two, can be described in terms of demographics, media preference and geographic loc ation.One or more of these segments are then selected as target market, based on the organisation’s capabilities relative to those of its competition, taking into account current economic and technological conditions. The organisation then decides on the desired image of the service product or brand, also known as the service product or brand position. The third step entails the marketing mix/strategy formulation. Hawkins et al. (2001:14) point out that a marketing strategy basically answers the question: How will we provide – 83 – superior customer value to our target market?The answer requires the formulation of a consistent marketing mix. Thus, the marketing strategy is formulated in terms of the marketing mix. Lamb et al. (2004:12) point out that this step involves the determining of service product features, price, communications (promotion), distribution (place), people, process and physical evidence that will provide the customer with superior value. The total service product is then presented to the target market, which constantly engages in processing information and making decisions to enhance and maintain their lifestyles.The marketing strategy (as implemented in the marketing mix) intervenes between the decision-making process of consumers (Step 4) and the outcomes/goals of an organisation. The outcomes of the organisation are determined by its interaction with the consumer decision-making process. Organisations can only succeed if consumers see a need that the organisation’s service product can address, become aware of the service product, decide that it is the best viable alternative solution, proceed to buy it, and become satisfied with the results (Hawkins et al. , 2004:22-23). The consumer decision-making process will be discussed in detail in Chapter 4.Finally, the reaction of the target market to the total service product produces an image of the service product, brand or organisation, sales (or the lack thereof), and some level of customer satisfaction among those who did purchase. As the components of the market analysis (Step 1) was discussed as part of the trends in the higher education landscape in Chapter 2 and the consumer decision-making process (Step 4) will be explained in Chapter 4, the remainder of the chapter will focus on the STP process (Step 2) and marketing strategy (Step 3) as depicted in Figure 3. . – 84 – MARKETING MIX/STRATEGY (CHAPTER 3) Service product (3. 7. 1) Price (3. 7. 2) Promotion (3. 7. 3) Place (3. 7. 4) People (3. 7. 5) Process (3. 7. 8) Physical evidence (3. 7. 9) Problem recognition (4. 7) Information search (4. 8) Alternative evaluation (4. 9) Selection and purchase (4. 10) Post-purchase process (4. 11) OUTCOME Customer Satisfaction Sales Product/brand image/organisation Source: Adapted from Hawkins, Best and Coney (2001:8). – 85 – CHAPTER 3 STP- PROCESS (CHAPTER 3) Segmentation, target market and product positioning (3. 6)CONSU MER DECISION-MAKING PROCESS (CHAPTER 4) STEP 4 CHAPTER 2 MARKET ANALYSIS (CHAPTER 2) Competitors Company Consumer Conditions CHAPTER 4 STEP 3 STEP 2 STEP 1 Figure 3. 1: Marketing strategy and consumer behaviour As the components of the market analysis (Step 1) was discussed as part of the trends in the higher education landscape in Chapter 2 and the consumer decision-making process (Step 4) will be explained in Chapter 4, the remainder of the chapter will focus on the STP process (Step 2) and marketing strategy (Step 3) as depicted in Figure 3. . 3. 6 SEGMENTATION, TARGET MARKETING AND POSITIONING (STP PROCESS) Marketing strategy formulation for organisations takes place via the process of integrating segmentation, targeting, positioning and the services marketing mix. Once organisations have segmented the market, they must determine the market potential of each segment and then select segments to target. A target market can be defined as a fairly homogeneous group of customers to w hom an organisation directs its market offering.Organisations must determine a mixture of the marketing elements that they will combine to satisfy their target market. Selecting a market-oriented strategy is referred to as target marketing. A specific marketing strategy specifies a particular target customer (Perreault & McCarthy, 2002:47). Most non-profit organisations serve several groups or publics. The two broad groups are donors, who may be individuals, trusts, companies or governmental bodies. The second group consists of their clients such as students, parents, government or employers.Often higher education institutions need to satisfy both groups and this complicates the marketing task (Lovelock & Wright, 2002:233). Students, prospective students and their families are seen as customers or consumers who must be attracted to the institution, who must be satisfied, and who must have a good experience at the institution. This will ensure that they spread positive word-of-mouth and influence other potential students to select the institution (Reich, 2004).Students can be regarded as the primary clients of higher education institutions and parents, employers and society as secondary beneficiaries. As an institution’s target market changes, new needs and trends evolve (as discussed in Chapter 2), making it necessary for institutions to rethink their position and often to reposition in order to address the new needs or trends (McGolddrick, 2000:54) This study focuses on students as a target market of institutions, as traditionally most institutions’ marketing efforts are directed at satisfying 86 – the needs of students. This study will provide insight into the demographics and choice factor importance that forms part of students decision-making behaviour, which will aid higher education institutions in understanding their target market to ensure satisfaction through implementing an appropriate marketing strategy. After segmentation and t arget marketing, organisations should position their market offerings in such a way that it is perceived to satisfy the needs of customers better than the competition. According to Hawkins et al. 2001:289), a product’s position refers to the schematic memory of a brand in relation to competing brands, products, services and stores. Brand image, a closely related concept, can be defined as the schematic memory of a brand without reference to competing brands. Strydom et al. (2000:14) regard a product’s position as the way consumers perceive a product or service in terms of its character and advantages in relation to competitors. Du Plessis and Rousseau (2003:276) state that the important underlying principle is recognising that the marketing battle today is fought in the minds of the consumer.Research shows those products or services that enjoy high awareness levels usually enjoy dominant market penetration and market share. But awareness is not enough; the service prod uct must have a meaningful position in the mind of the consumer and stand for something of value to the consumer. Mowen (1995:18) defines product differentiation as the process of positioning the product by manipulating the marketing mix so that customers can perceive meaningful differences between a particular brand and competing brands.A highly differentiated brand may have strong competitive advantages, because it is easily recognisable as being different from competitors. Institutions need to know how they and their service products are positioned in the student’s mind. The stimuli that institutions employ, such as advertising or sponsorships, can influence the service product’s interpretation and thus its position. Hawkins et al. (2001:289) is of the opinion that organisations frequently fail to achieve the type of service product image or position they desire, because they fail to anticipate or test the consumer’s reaction.These positions have developed an d evolved over time. Therefore, the message received from the organisation must be consistent or change in a deliberate manner to reflect or alter a desired change in brand position. – 87 – Strydom et al. (2000:134) state that organisations must position their brands so that they are perceived to satisfy the needs of the target market better than competitors’ offerings. The institution must develop a unique appeal for the brand in the consumer’s mind and position the brand as filling a particular need of the consumer.Berman and Evans (2001:122) point out that through positioning, institutions devise their strategy in a way that projects an image relative to the institution’s category and its competitors, and elicits consumers’ responses to their image. Sargeant (2005:322) notes that positioning can also have a profound impact on the success or failure of fundraising initiatives and attempts to work closely with commerce and industry. Those h igher education institutions that are perceived as being either of high quality or as unique in some way, are likely to have the greatest success in these areas.Law (2002:3) states that it is important for institutions to distinguish themselves from competitors in terms of values that are important to the student. Therefore, higher education institutions need to develop a clear position that can be stated simply, effectively and often (Dehne, 2001). The author continues by saying that as competition becomes stronger, an integrated marketing strategy based on the identified positioning of the institution will play a crucial role.If organisations want staff and students to project a positive image, they must clearly define exactly what that image is; not vague understanding, but specifics (Sharpe & Harville, 1987). Law (2002:4) emphasises the importance of addressing the values that are important for prospective students in the publications of the institution. It can therefore be said that in the positioning of the institution, the needs and perceptions of important values of the respective public should be seriously considered.The elements of higher education institutions’ marketing are mixed to form an integrated strategy where each component plays a role to position the institution in its chosen target market (Van Biljon, 1992:65). According to Czinkota, Kotabe and Mecer (1997:217), organisations must first determine how they want to position their service products and use their service products’ position as basis for developing their marketing strategies. This means that after the STP (segmentation, targeting and positioning) process, organisations must blend the services marketing mix elements into a marketing strategy that reflect the organisation’s desired osition to their target market. – 88 – The next section focuses on the services marketing mix and its elements as it pertains to higher education institutions. 3. 7 TH E SERVICES MARKETING MIX OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS The development of a marketing strategy involves the coordination and combination of the marketing mix elements (Mowen, 1995:19; and Hawkins et al. , 2001:6). It is the combination and coordination of the elements in the marketing mix that enables organisations to meet customers’ needs and provides customer value.A traditional marketing mix consists of the following elements: price, service product, promotion and place (distribution). However, due to the intangible, inseparable, heterogeneous and perishable nature of services, the traditional marketing mix was extended to include process, people and physical evidence (Goldsmith, 1999:178). Because higher education institutions mainly provide intangible service products, the extended marketing mix, better known as the services marketing mix, forms the focus of this chapter.Higher education institutions need a well-developed comprehensive marketing strategy that is caref ully communicated throughout the institution (Robinson & Long, 1987:44; Brooker & Noble, 1985:34) and the services marketing mix will help higher education institutions to shape their service offerings according to the needs of their customers. Grove, in Kraft (2006) showed that in the marketing of education, the marketing mix is the single most important determinant of marketing success.In the light of the fact that marketing can influence the consumer’s behaviour and the services marketing mix can assist higher education institutions in developing a holistic and well thought-through service offering, the seven services marketing mix elements (service product, price, promotion, distribution, people, physical evidence and process) will be discussed in the main part of this chapter. – 89 – 3. 7. 1 THE SERVICE PRODUCT STRATEGY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS The most basic decision that higher education institutions have to make is what programmes and services th ey will offer to their students, alumni and donors.An institution’s service product strategy determines its identity, position and how customers will respond to the institution. A product is anything a consumer acquires, or might acquire to meet a perceived need and thus the sum of all the products and/or services offered by an organisation. To define the term service is not easy or simplistic. Although the process may be tied to a physical product, the performance is essentially intangible and does not normally result in ownership of any of the factors of production. Services create value and provide benefits for customers at specific times and places.Lovelock and Wright (2002:3) define services as an act or performance offered by one party to another. Irons (1997:12) defines services as perishable, transient acts that have no lasting material, being mainly presented by people that cannot be separated from the provider. Therefore, the personal characteristics of the provider are an important part of the service. Du Plessis and Rousseau (2003:175) state that these definitions reveal that the nature of service centres on the characteristic of intangibility and that it is this feature that distinguishes services marketing from the marketing of physical goods.The goods and services continuum is shown in Figure 3. 2 below. Figure 3. 2: Goods and services continuum Tangible dominant Complete tangible products Tangible products with supporting services Intangible dominant Hybrid offers Source: Adapted from Palmer (2005:24). – 90 – Major service with supporting products Pure services It is evident that in services, the intangible element is dominant. The provision of education, although intangible, also contains tangible elements. Institutions provide service activities such as the teaching process and contact with customers (intangible element) as well as learning aterial such as textbooks (tangible element). McCollKennedy (2003:6-7) regards goo ds and services’ tangibility on a continuum, rather than in one category. At one end of the continuum are the intangible services and at the other end are tangible products. Higher education, which can be described as a major service (intangible) with minor supporting products (tangible), are leaning towards the intangible side of the continuum. In addition to categorising services based on their tangibility, it is also useful to identify who or what is the direct recipient of the service.Services can either be directed at people’s bodies, intangible assetes, physical possessions or people’s minds such as education (Lovelock, 1996:29). In order to better understand the concept of services, the distinguishing characteristics of services will now be explained. The basic characteristics of services are briefly outlined below (Lovelock & Wright, 2002:14-16): †¢ Customers do not obtain ownership. Customers usually derive value from a service without obtaining ow nership of any tangible elements; †¢ Service products are intangible performances.Intangible refers to something that is experienced and cannot be touched or preserved. Although services often include tangible elements, the service performance itself is basically intangible; †¢ Customer involvement in the production process. Customers are often actively involved in helping to create the service product by helping themselves or by cooperating with the service personnel. Customers cannot sit back and wait for the experience to be delivered as they do with the purchase of tangible products they have to participate. †¢People as part of the service product. Given the fact that different service personnel may deliver the service product to customers, it is difficult to achieve – 91 – uniformity in service delivery. This difference (heterogeneity) in attitude and action will typically result in very different customer perceptions of the quality and overall sati sfaction levels. People are such an important component of service delivery that it is added as an element to service organisations marketing mix and will be discussed in Section 3. 7. 5; †¢ Importance of time.Customers have to be physically present to receive services. Customers are becoming increasingly time sensitive and speed is often a key element in good service delivery; and †¢ Services are perishable and cannot be stored like physical goods. Thus, although education includes tangible elements such as textbooks, chairs and notes, students derive value from higher education without obtaining ownership. Students are involved in the education production process as they participate in and help make the final service product, by giving inputs in class or participating in campus events.As higher education is perishable and cannot be stored, students must be physically present to receive education. It is evident that offering educational services involve special challenges , since most services education is intangible, inseparable, variable and perishable. Developing service products that satisfy consumers’ wants and needs are a critical marketing activity for institutions (Hoyer & MacInnis, 2001:40). Consumer research can provide useful information for service product decisions.According to Czinkota et al. (1997:109), information provided by consumer behaviour research, such as this study, can help organisations to decide which attributes to add to or change in an existing offering; aid them in correctly naming or re-naming their organisations and make effective packaging and branding decisions. Higher education institutions should evaluate its academic programmes and service product mix periodically, and particularly when considering modifications. Some programmes are more central than others.Education offerings are specifically essential programmes that institutions cannot do without. Other programmes may be easier to modify, like recreation al activities that are usually auxiliary programmes. Certain programmes will play a major role in attracting customers and these are called flagship programmes (Kotler & Fox, 1995:282). – 92 – Information provided by this study will enable institutions to determine the importance of some components of their service product (variety of study courses, academic quality and sport programmes) in the institution selection process of students.Higher education institutions must also develop a pricing strategy for their service products. The pricing decision is of utmost importance, as this will ensure income for higher education institutions that will enable them to implement al the other decisions such as promotion, distribution, processes, physical evidence and people. Section 3. 7. 2 will focus on the pricing strategy of higher education institutions. 3. 7. 2 THE PRICING STRATEGY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONSIn this section, the pricing strategy of higher education insti tutions will be discussed by defining the term price, explaining possible pricing objectives of higher education institutions, explaining discounts and highlighting the role of price. Price plays an important role in the marketing mix, quality perception, attracting customers and providing revenue to institutions. Price is the amount of money (or some other item that is exchanged or bartered) that the buyer exchanges for a service product provided by the seller. Lamb et al. (2004:570) describe prices as that which is given up in exchange to acquire goods and services.The price of a service plays two major roles. Firstly, it influences how much of the service product the customer will purchase, and secondly, it influences whether selling the service will be profitable for the organisation or not (Machado & Cassim, 2000:99). Prices can be seen as the amount that a customer (students, parents or employers) must pay to be educated. The price of higher education institutions are influenc ed by the subsidy from government as well as donations and the cost of presenting the course, prices of competition and inflation.Price, for students, consists of a monetary cost as well as other costs, for example effort cost (completing long essay application forms), psychological cost (stress of enrolling in an institution far from home) and time cost (visiting or attending open days at different institutions) (Kotler & Fox, 1995:311). Students and their parents are not just interested in the institution’s list price (official – 93 – tuition and fees printed in a catalogue), but also the effective price. According to Kotler and Fox (1995:312), the effective price is the amount the customer will actually pay for all the educational benefits and value received.Prospective students may find it difficult to measure effective price early in the decision process, since effective price can only be known after the student has gone though the application process and h as been accepted and financial aid has been allocated. Tuition fees represent only a fraction of the total cost of attending a higher education institution and living cost and other education related expenses must also be considered by students (Anon, 2006b). Diederichs (1987:112) found that price plays an important role in students’ choices of a higher education institution.The first aspect organisations should consider when pricing a service product is to decide on the pricing objectives they want to achieve. Pricing objectives can influence the price of the service product and include: maximising profit (short- or long-term), building market share, maximising long-term customer perceptions of the value of the service product, maximising immediate cash flow, positioning the service product in a certain place in customers’ minds, and targeting a given segment of the market.Higher education institutions may pursue more than one of these objectives at the same time depe nding on the situation they are facing. A new higher education institution emerging after a merger may aim to position their service product, as well as targeting a given segment and maximising long-term perceptions of value (McColl-Kennedy, 2003:270 and Machado & Cassim, 2002:106-107). Higher education institutions should take into account three factors when setting prices for their educational programmes: †¢ Firstly, cost, by determining the amount of revenue needed to cover expected operating expenses; Secondly, customer demand, which emphasises that the final price decision is always made by the customer; and †¢ Thirdly, competition, as institutions have to weigh their â€Å"value† and establish their price relative to their competitors. Institutions should always consider the effects of a given pricing policy on enrolment, the nature and mission of the institution, the prices charged by competition and the – 94 – effect of their prices and price c hanges on actions of competition (Kotler & Fox, 1995:309).The pricing objective of a higher education institution will also affect its discount policy, as discount influence profit, market share, cash flow and positioning. Once the basic price is established, organisations need to establish some flexibility in terms of that price. Discount can be defined as the reductions to the basic price (Machado & Cassim, 2002:116). Higher education institutions need to determine and publish their prices (tuition fees) and discounts. Financial aid is seen as a form as discount by students.Kotler and Fox (1995:310) state that financial aid is not just used to attract students to increase the size of classes, but also to ensure the needed composition of the class to meet diversity objectives. Student aid or financial aid makes it possible for many students from low- and middle income families to afford higher education (Anon, 2006b). Cabrera and La Nasa (2000:10) found that financial aid especiall y influences students positively to select a particular institution and also allows parents to consider a wider range of institutions.This study will include the importance of financial aid in selecting a higher education institution. Diederichs (1987:114) found that a higher education institution’s price policy should take into consideration the facilities needed, quality of education and competitiveness, as students often use the price of a product or service as an indicator of quality. For example, more expensive institutions may be viewed as providing better education. Some institutions make use of their price/quality relationship by trying to raise the prestige and attractiveness of their institution by raising the tuition fees.Higher education institutions must carefully consider the role of price in the marketing mix, as price can be used as a quality indicator and thereby influence the perception of the institution’s position. Higher education institutions ofte n offer substantial amounts of financial aid to talented students to maintain their competitive advantage. Students and parents are looking for the best overall deal in terms of educational quality and prices (Laurer, 2006).Courant (2006:4) is of the opinion that higher education institutions prepare students to lead an examined life and should therefore price higher education as an expensive, high value proposition. Wallace (2003:32) argues that higher tuition fees will enable institutions to improve the quality of education and in countries where higher education is subsidised or offered for free, education would be held in higher esteem if a price were attached to it. However, Beckett (2005) warns that institutions – 95 – should be aware that charging top fees may cause institutions to loose students and not widen the participation.Wallace (2003) states that universities in France, England, the United States and Germany are facing the same problems with the price of education, as government funding for education is decreasing and institutions have to look at increasing tuition fees. The result is that students in these countries are protesting the price increases. The increased value of a higher education degree, increased research at universities, reduced state funding for public higher education institutions and monopolistic behaviour of higher education institutions are other possible reasons for higher prices (Barry, 1998:84).Higher educational institutions rely on tuition fees, donors and government subsidies as sources of revenue. As discussed in Chapter 2, changes in the financial environment emphasise the trend of institutions to cut cost, increase productivity and offer more financial aid to students. Most educational institutions depend heavily on tuition fees to keep operating and pricing therefore becomes very important. Price plays a role in determining who will apply, who will attend, who the institutions will serve, what the ins titutions will be able to offer and whether the institutions will meet its enrolment objectives and revenue needs.From the discussion it is evident that a pricing strategy is important for education institutions because they depend on revenue to operate, especially in the light of the decrease in subsidies (refer to Chapter 2). Price is part of the marketing mix and should be considered as an element of the institution’s strategy planning. When setting price, decision-makers should understand how students perceive price and the importance of price in selecting institutions.According to Cosser and Du Toit (2002:77), price is an important factor considered in choosing a higher education institution. It is important that higher education institutions know the cost of producing the service, know the price of competitors, identify pricing factors that are relevant to pricing decisions, and decide on a pricing strategy that will attract enough students. It is evident from the above -mentioned that higher education management needs information on the students and market to make effective pricing decisions.This study will provide some insight on the importance of price in the institution selection process. – 96 – Higher education institutions can have good quality educational services offered at the right price to students, but if students and parents are not aware of these services and prices, they will not consider the institution. It is thus important that higher education institutions communicate with their prospective students and parents. The next section will focus on the promotional or communication strategy of higher education institutions. 3. 7. THE PROMOTIONAL STRATEGY OF HIGHER EDUCATION INSTITUTIONS Educational institutions need to effectively communicate with their target market(s) and publics. Institutions must inform students and parents about its goals, activities and offerings and motivate them to take an interest in the instituti on. To identify and satisfy consumers’ needs, an institution must have a good understanding of the consumer in order to gain a competitive advantage through its marketing mix (service product, price, distribution, promotion, process, people and physical evidence).Persuasive communication is central to the marketing of service products as features, benefits and values must be communicated to the consumers to influence their purchase behaviour. Everything and everybody in an institution has a role to play in communication. Examples include the organisation’s brand name or logo, campus grounds, service product quality, prices, employees, delivery vehicles, buildings, the technology the organisation has at its disposal, the capital the organisation has at its disposal and the organisational philosophy.Kelley and Mahady (2003:2) are of the opinion that promotion is an element sometimes overlooked by non-profit organisations. They argue that even if an institution offers som e of the best programmes and services, these will not be utilised to the fullest if the market they were intended for has no knowledge of their existence. The remainder of Section 3. 7. 3 will focus on the definition of promotion, the communication process and the integrated services marketing communication (ISMC) mix available for higher education institutions. According to Hawkins et al. 2001:19), promotion or marketing communication includes advertising, the sales force, public relations, packaging and any other signals that the – 97 – organisation provides about itself and its products and services. Lamb et al. (2004:466) describe the promotional strategy as a plan for the optimal use of the elements of promotion, namely advertising, sales promotion, publicity and personal selling. Many higher education institutions are returning to promotional or communication tools to promote courses in an attempt to maintain and/or expand their market share.The importance of com munication can be seen in the establishment of communication departments, more funds that are allocated to marketing and appointing marketing managers or external communication experts to help with promotional activities. Higher education institutions are making use of radio, television, newspapers, buses, taxis and open days as well as more professional brochures and promotional material as vehicles for communication (Jones, 2002:41). This is necessary, since higher education institutions can no longer depend on pass rates alone to attract students.In order to utilise the promotional tools to their fullest and to ensure effective communication, higher education institutions need to understand the communication process. Communication involves the creation of shared meaning between participants. The intangibility, inseparability, perishability and heterogeneity of services create special communication requirements and involve the risk of miscommunication that is not so evident in the marketing of goods (McColl-Kennedy, 2003:236). Communication can be viewed upon as the transfer of a message from a sender to a receiver by means of a signal of some sort via a channel or medium.The sender translates his/her objectives, ideas and concepts through language into a message also known as encoding (Strydom et al. , 2000:344). The receiver tries to decode the message before he/she can comprehend its meaning and then the receiver reacts or responds to the message (Lamb et al. , 2004:326). The disturbances (physical or psychological) that prevent the successful transfer of the message are known as noise. Noise influences all the components of the communication process and places obstacles in the way of effective communication.Higher education institutions are the senders, while the receivers of the message are the potential students, existing students, parents, employers or alumni. For the purpose of this study, the focus is on the students of a higher education institutio n. This does not mean that institutions do not need to communicate with other publics such as alumni, parents, donors, government or the general public as well. According – 98 – to Jones (2002:44) the student’s ability to decode the message is influenced by his/her past experiences, feelings, emotions, attitudes and perceptions of the institution.Thus, higher education institutions need to fully understand their target market to identify the appropriate intended messages for the target market. The communication process gives higher education institutions the opportunity to influence prospective students’ behaviour by developing a message that creates awareness, position themselves in the mind of the student, change the student’s attitude towards the institution, or encourage the student to apply to the institution (Jones, 2002:45). The most popular communication/promotion objectives are general image enhancement and awareness of the institutions (K ittle, 2000).According to Jones (2002:43), emotions or feelings also play an important part in the encoding process and it is vital that higher education institutions should have empathy for other people’s cultural backgrounds. Higher education institutions need to select a medium that will attract attention, arouse interest and present the message clearly (Kotler & Fox, 1995:353). Higher education institutions need knowledge about the language of the prospective students, knowledge of forms of communication and general background information about the prospective students in order to encode successfully.The media that will be investigated in this study include: printed media (advertisement in magazines, newspapers or outdoor media), broadcasting media (advertisements on radio and television), direct mail or direct marketing (newsletters and brochures of higher education institutions), body language and direct communication through representatives of the institution (school v isits by staff or open days attended by students), word-of-mouth (conversations with alumni, friends or family members), or websites. In Chapter 4 the different media will be further discussed as part of the sources of information used by students.The promotional mix that an institution uses is determined by the student market’s expectations and requirements of the service products, together with the other elements of institutions’ marketing decisions. Machado and Cassim (2002:157) describe the promotional mix as the blend of promotional methods used by the organisation to communicate. A huge array of promotion elements exist, such as direct marketing, sales promotions, advertising, Internet and sponsorships. The communication process and the promotional mix elements (advertising, public – 99 – elations, personal selling and sales promotions) are used by organisations to communicate to their prospective customers. The message that reaches the customer sho uld be the same regardless of whether it is an advertisement on the radio, websites, open days, or a newspaper insert. To ensure the careful coordination of all the promotional mix elements, organisations must adopt the concept of Integrated Marketing Communications (IMC) (Du Plessis & Rousseau, 2005:345). For a higher education institution, this means that the institution coordinates all its communication activities.Zeithaml and Bitner (2000:405) suggest that a more complex integrated form of communication is needed for services, hence the ISMC approach as shown in Figure 3. 3. This concept requires a complete communication strategy that involves staff, every interface the institution has with its students, stakeholders and the community at large (Jones, 2002:450). Laurer (2006) suggests that institutions must coordinate all the promotional elements so that they meet the needs of students and parents who will pay for their products and services. Figure 3. serves as a visual guide f or the discussion